These figures visualize the structure and evolution of tariff concessions using the concession accounting framework developed in Beshkar, Chang, and Song (2025). The first two panels depict the network of bilateral net tariff concessions in 1995 and 2018, where directed links represent net concessions and link thickness reflects their magnitude. The third panel shows a time-series plot of net multilateral concessions from 1995 to 2018.

In both years, the United States is the largest net contributor of tariff concessions to the rest of the world. The bilateral networks highlight the central role of the U.S. in sustaining reciprocal tariff liberalization, with large outgoing concession flows to many trading partners. However, the structure of these concessions changes substantially over time. In particular, China receives far larger net concessions from the U.S. in 2018 than in 1995, reflecting China’s expanded role in global trade following its WTO accession. At the same time, the 2018 network shows that China has become a major granter of tariff concessions to other countries, including Korea.

The time-series plot of net multilateral concessions highlights a sharp contrast between China and other major trading economies. The United States emerges as a persistent net provider of concessions, and Korea as an increasingly large net recipient. China, by contrast, maintains a net multilateral position close to balance, indicating that the substantial bilateral concessions it receives—especially from the United States—are largely offset by the concessions it grants to other countries.